Ok, so here's the thing: repairing the disk got me "volume bitmap needs minor repair for orphaned blocks"... system start wasn't possible of course after that...
So I removed the HDD from my MacBook and put it in an external case, booted that one and was luckily able to save any crucial data since I can access the whole drive without problems...
The question is, what now? I would like to repair everything instead of formating... installing the whole system again takes a lot of time (all the apps, settings and so on)
Please don't ask me about TM, because I usually have a backup, but after installing 10.10, I got problems backing up and didn't create a new one (really really stupid)
So DiskWarrior? Read some good stuff about it...
EDIT: holding down OPTION while booting showed up my Mac and my Boot Camp Partition, but not my Recovery Partition, which surprised me
EDIT2: I'm not sure if I even need DiskWarrior, because I've just found out, that I'm not able to create new partitions on that hard drive if I would want to (what I actually don't want). After googling that given error I found out, that most people get this if they are using FileVault, I also read something about locked disk... I didn't activate FileVault and I didn't lock the disk... is there a way to unlock it? Maybe I can repair it or even start the system again if I have full access again, because right now I can read every file, but don't write to it...