Try running a HW test to rule out HW failure
And then file system diagnostics / repair to ensure that the data structure on disk are OK.
With disk utility or command line tools you can check which partitions exists, if they are bootable and if they are mounted. You can also try to manually mount disks which may give you more error information. Any disk has to be mounted before you can access files on it, i.e. to boot.
This is all fairly advanced stuff and if you do not understand what we are saying you may be better of taking the computer to someone that can help you.